Journal list menu
Assessing the risk of carbon dioxide emissions from blue carbon ecosystems
Corresponding Author
Catherine E Lovelock
The School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia
[email protected]Search for more papers by this authorTrisha Atwood
Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia
Department of Watershed Sciences and the Ecology Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT
Search for more papers by this authorCarlos M Duarte
King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorSharyn Hickey
UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
School of Earth and Environment Science, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorPaul S Lavery
School of Science & Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Blanes, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Blanes, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorPere Masque
UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
School of Science & Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals & Departament de Física, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorPeter I Macreadie
School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorAurora M Ricart
Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Blanes, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Blanes, Spain
Departament d'Ecologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorOscar Serrano
UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
School of Science & Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorAndy Steven
CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Catherine E Lovelock
The School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia
[email protected]Search for more papers by this authorTrisha Atwood
Global Change Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia
Department of Watershed Sciences and the Ecology Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT
Search for more papers by this authorCarlos M Duarte
King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Red Sea Research Center (RSRC), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorSharyn Hickey
UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
School of Earth and Environment Science, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorPaul S Lavery
School of Science & Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Blanes, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Blanes, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorPere Masque
UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
School of Science & Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals & Departament de Física, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorPeter I Macreadie
School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorAurora M Ricart
Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Blanes, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Blanes, Spain
Departament d'Ecologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorOscar Serrano
UWA Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
School of Science & Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorAndy Steven
CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
“Blue carbon” ecosystems, which include tidal marshes, mangrove forests, and seagrass meadows, have large stocks of organic carbon (Corg) in their soils. These carbon stocks are vulnerable to decomposition and – if degraded – can be released to the atmosphere in the form of CO2. We present a framework to help assess the relative risk of CO2 emissions from degraded soils, thereby supporting inclusion of soil Corg into blue carbon projects and establishing a means to prioritize management for their carbon values. Assessing the risk of CO2 emissions after various kinds of disturbances can be accomplished through knowledge of both the size of the soil Corg stock at a site and the likelihood that the soil Corg will decompose to CO2.
Supporting Information
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| fee1491-sup-0001-WebTableS1.pdfPDF document, 32.4 KB | |
| fee1491-sup-0002-WebTableS2.pdfPDF document, 153.2 KB | |
| fee1491-sup-0003-WebTableS3.pdfPDF document, 150 KB | |
| fee1491-sup-0004-WebTableS4.pdfPDF document, 156.1 KB |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Adame MF, Hermoso V, Perhans K, et al. 2015. Selecting cost-effective areas for restoration of ecosystem services. Conserv Biol 29: 493–502.
- Alongi DM. 2002. Present state and future of the world's mangrove forests. Environ Conserv 29: 331–49.
- AS/NZS. 2004a. Risk management. AS/NZS 4360:2004. Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand: Sydney, Australia; Wellington, New Zealand.
- AS/NZS. 2004b. Risk management guidelines companion to AS/NZS 4360:2004. Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand: Sydney, Australia; Wellington, New Zealand.
- Baldock JA, Masiello CA, Gelinas Y, and Hedges JI. 2004. Cycling and composition of organic matter in terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Mar Chem 92: 39–64.
- Barbier EB, Hacker SD, Kennedy CJ, et al. 2011. The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecol Monogr 81: 169–93.
- Bianchi TS. 2011. The role of terrestrially derived organic carbon in the coastal ocean: a changing paradigm and the priming effect. P Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 19473–81.
- Blair NE and Aller RC. 2012. The fate of terrestrial organic carbon in the marine environment. Ann Rev Mar Sci 4: 401–23.
- Bouillon S, Borges AV, Castañeda-Moya E, et al. 2008. Mangrove production and carbon sinks: a revision of global budget estimates. Glob Biogeochem Cy 22: GB2013.
- Burden A, Garbutt RA, Evans CD, et al. 2013. Carbon sequestration and biogeochemical cycling in a saltmarsh subject to coastal managed realignment. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 120: 12–20.
- Cahoon DR, Hensel P, Rybczyk J, et al. 2003. Mass tree mortality leads to mangrove peat collapse at Bay Islands, Honduras after Hurricane Mitch. J Ecol 91: 1093–105.
- Cai WJ. 2011. Estuarine and coastal ocean carbon paradox: CO2 sinks or sites of terrestrial carbon incineration? Ann Rev Mar Sci 3: 123–45.
- Connor R, Chmura GL, and Beecher BC. 2001. Carbon accumulation in Bay of Fundy salt marshes: implications for restoration of reclaimed marshes. Glob Biogeochem Cy 15: 943–54.
- Coverdale TC, Brisson CP, Young EW, et al. 2014. Indirect human impacts reverse centuries of carbon sequestration and salt marsh accretion. PLoS ONE 9: e93296.
- Craft C, Megonigal P, Broome S, et al. 2003. The pace of ecosystem development of constructed Spartina alterniflora marshes. Ecol Appl 13: 1417–32.
- Craft C and Reader J. 1999. Twenty-five years of ecosystem development of constructed Spartina alterniflora (Loisel) marshes. Ecol Appl 9: 1405–19.
- Donato DC, Kauffman JB, Murdiyarso D, et al. 2011. Mangroves among the most carbon-rich tropical forests and key in land-use carbon emissions. Nat Geosci 4: 293–97.
- Duarte CM, Losada IJ, Hendriks IE, et al. 2013. The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Nat Clim Change 3: 961–68.
- Fourqurean JW, Duarte CM, Kennedy H, et al. 2012. Seagrass ecosystems as a globally significant carbon stock. Nat Geosci 5: 505–09.
- Gedan KB, Silliman BR, and Bertness MD. 2009. Centuries of human-driven change in salt marsh ecosystems. Ann Rev Mar Sci 1: 117–41.
- GOFC-GOLD (Global Observation of Forest Cover and Land Dynamics). 2009. A sourcebook of methods and procedures for monitoring and reporting anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and removals caused by deforestation, gains and losses in carbon stocks in forests remaining forests, and forestation. Ed COP15-1. Alberta, Canada: Food and Agriculture Organization.
- Graham RL, Hunsaker CT, O'Neill RV, and Jackson BL. 1991. Ecological risk assessment at the regional scale. Ecol Appl 1: 196–206.
- Greiner JT, McGlathery KJ, Gunnell J, and McKee B. 2013. Seagrass restoration enhances “blue carbon” sequestration in coastal waters. PLoS ONE 8: e72469.
- Hicks W, Fitzpatrick R, and Bowman G. 2003. Managing coastal acid sulphate soils: the East Trinity example. In: IC Roach (Ed). Advances in Regolith. CRC LEME.
- Houghton RA. 2003. Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use and land management 1850–2000. Tellus 55B: 378–90.
- Howard J, Hoyt S, Isensee K, et al. (Eds). 2014. Coastal blue carbon: methods for assessing carbon stocks and emissions factors in mangroves, tidal salt marshes, and seagrass meadows. Arlington, VA: Conservation International, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, IUCN.
- Jardine SL and Siikamäki JV. 2014. A global predictive model of carbon in mangrove soils. Environ Res Lett 9: 104013.
- Jones RN. 2001. An environmental risk assessment/management framework for climate change impact assessments. Nat Hazard 23: 197–230.
- Kauffman JB, Heider C, Norfolk J, and Payton F. 2014. Carbon stocks of intact mangroves and carbon emissions arising from their conversion in the Dominican Republic. Ecol Appl 24: 518–27.
- Knox SH, Sturtevant C, Matthes JH, et al. 2015. Agricultural peatland restoration: effects of land-use change on greenhouse gas (CO2 and CH4) fluxes in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Glob Chang Biol 21: 750–65.
- Lang'at JKS, Kairo JG, Mencuccini M, et al. 2014. Rapid losses of surface elevation following tree girdling and cutting in tropical mangroves. PLoS ONE 9: e107868.
- Lane RR, Mack SK, Day JW, et al. 2016. Fate of soil organic carbon during wetland loss. Wetlands 36: 1167–81.
- Lavery PS, Mateo MÁ, Serrano O, and Rozaimi M. 2013. Variability in the carbon storage of seagrass habitats and its implications for global estimates of blue carbon ecosystem service. PLoS ONE 8: e73748.
- Lovelock CE, Ruess RW, and Feller IC. 2011. CO2 efflux from cleared mangrove peat. PLoS ONE 6: e21279.
- Lunstrum A and Chen L. 2014. Soil carbon stocks and accumulation in young mangrove forests. Soil Biol Biochem 75: 223–32.
- Mack SK, Lane RR, and Day JW. 2012. Restoration of degraded deltaic wetlands of the Mississippi Delta v2.0. American Carbon Registry (ACR). Arlington, VA: Winrock International.
- Macreadie PI, Hughes AR, and Kimbro DL. 2013. Loss of ‘blue carbon’ from coastal salt marshes following habitat disturbance. PLoS ONE 8: e69244.
- Macreadie PI, Trevathan-Tackett SM, Skilbeck CG, et al. 2015. Losses and recovery of organic carbon from a seagrass ecosystem following disturbance. P Roy Soc B Biol Sci 282: 1–6.
- Macreadie PI, York PH, Sherman CDH, et al. 2014. No detectable impact of small-scale disturbances on “blue carbon” within seagrass beds. Mar Biol 161: 2939–44.
- Maher DT, Santos IR, Golsby-Smith L, et al. 2013. Groundwater-derived dissolved inorganic and organic carbon exports from a mangrove tidal creek: the missing mangrove carbon sink? Limnol Oceanogr 58: 475–88.
- Marbà N, Arias-Ortiz A, Masqué P, et al. 2015. Impact of seagrass loss and subsequent revegetation on carbon sequestration and stocks. J Ecol 103: 296–302.
- Marchand C, Disnar JR, Lallier-Verges E, and Lottier N. 2005. Early diagenesis of carbohydrates and lignin in mangrove sediments subject to variable redox conditions (French Guiana). Geochim Cosmo Acta 69: 131–42.
- Mateo MA and Romero J. 1997. Detritus dynamics in the seagrass Posidonia oceanica: elements for an ecosystem carbon and nutrient budget. Oceanogr Lit Rev 10: 1106.
- McKee KL, Cahoon DR, and Feller IC. 2007. Caribbean mangroves adjust to rising sea level through biotic controls on change in soil elevation. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 16: 545–56.
- Mcleod E, Chmura GL, Bouillon S, et al. 2011. A blueprint for blue carbon: towards an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2. Front Ecol Environ 9: 552–60.
- Moodley L, Middelburg JJ, Herman PMJ, et al. 2005. Oxygenation and organic-matter preservation in marine sediments: direct experimental evidence from ancient organic carbon–rich deposits. Geology 33: 889–92.
- Nellemann C, Corcoran E, Duarte CM, et al. 2009. Blue carbon: a rapid response assessment. Arendal, Norway: United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal.
- Osland MJ, Spivak AC, Nestlerode J, et al. 2012. Ecosystem development after mangrove wetland creation: plant–soil change across a 20-year chronosequence. Ecosystems 15: 848–66.
- Pendleton L, Donato DC, Murray BC, et al. 2012. Estimating global “blue carbon” emissions from conversion and degradation of vegetated coastal ecosystems. PLoS ONE 7: e43542.
- Pedersen MØ, Serrano O, Mateo MA, and Holmer M. 2011. Temperature effects on decomposition of a Posidonia oceanica mat. Aquat Microb Ecol 65: 169–82.
- Rojstaczer S and Deverel SJ. 1995. Land subsidence in drained histosols and highly organic mineral soils of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Soil Sci Soc Am J 59: 1162–67.
- Saintilan N, Rogers K, Mazumder D, and Woodroffe C. 2013. Allochthonous and autochthonous contributions to carbon accumulation and carbon store in southeastern Australian coastal wetlands. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 128: 84–92.
- Salmo SG, Lovelock CE, and Duke NC. 2013. Vegetation and soil characteristics as indicators of restoration trajectories in restored mangroves. Hydrobiologia 720: 1–18.
- Samper-Villarreal J, Lovelock CE, Saunders MI, et al. 2016. Organic carbon in seagrass sediments is influenced by seagrass canopy complexity, turbidity, wave height, and water depth. Limnol Oceanogr 61: 938–52.
- Serrano O, Lavery PS, Rozaimi M, and Mateo MA. 2014. Influence of water depth on the carbon sequestration capacity of seagrasses. Glob Biogeochem Cy 28: 950–61.
- Serrano O, Ruhon R, Lavery PS, et al. 2016. Impact of mooring activities on carbon stocks in seagrass meadows. Sci Report 6: 23193.
- Sidik F and Lovelock CE. 2013. CO2 efflux from shrimp ponds in Indonesia. PLoS ONE 8: 6–9.
- Sutton-Greir AE, Moore AK, Wiley PC, et al. 2014. Incorporating ecosystem services into the implementation of existing US natural resource management regulations: operationalizing carbon sequestration and storage. Mar Pol 43: 246–53.
- Trevathan-Tackett SM, Kelleway JJ, Macreadie PI, et al. 2015. Comparison of marine macrophytes for their contributions to blue carbon sequestration. Ecology 96: 3043–57.
- van Katwijk M, Thorhaug A, Marbá N, et al. 2015. Global review of seagrass restoration and the importance of large-scale planting. J Appl Ecol 53: 567–78.
- Waycott M, Duarte CM, Carruthers TJB, et al. 2009. Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. P Natl Acad Sci USA 106: 12377–81.
- Wylie L, Sutton-Grier AE, and Moore A. 2016. Keys to successful blue carbon projects: lessons learned from global case studies. Mar Pol 65: 76–84.
